Afghanistan Country Facts and History

Afghanistan Country Facts and History Afghanistan has the misfortune of sitting in a strategic position at the crossroads of Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East. Despite its mountainous terrain and fiercely independent inhabitants, the country has been invaded time after time throughout its history. Today, Afghanistan is once more embroiled in war, pitting NATO troops and the current government against the ousted Taliban and its allies. Afghanistan is a fascinating but violence-wracked country, where East meets West. Capital and Major Cities Capital:  Kabul, population 3,475,000 (2013 estimate) Kandahar, population 491,500Herat, 436,300Mazar-e-Sharif, 375,000Kunduz, 304,600Jalalabad, 205,000 Afghanistan Government Afghanistan is an Islamic Republic, headed by the President. Afghan presidents may serve a maximum of two 5-year terms.  Ashraf Ghani was elected in 2014.   Hamid Karzai  served two terms as president before him. The National Assembly is a bicameral legislature, with a 249-member House of the People (Wolesi Jirga), and a 102-member House of the Elders (Meshrano Jirga). The nine justices of the Supreme Court (Stera Mahkama) are appointed to terms of 10 years by the President. These appointments are subject to approval by the Wolesi Jirga. Afghanistan Population The population of Afghanistan is estimated at 32.6 million. Afghanistan is home to a number of ethnic groups. The largest is the Pashtun, 42 percent of the population. Tajiks make up 27 percent, Hazaras  8 percent, and Uzbeks 9 percent, Aimaks 4 percent, Turkmen 3 percent and Baluchi 2 percent. The remaining 13 percent are tiny populations of Nuristanis, Kizibashis, and other groups. Life expectancy for both men and women within Afghanistan is 60 years. The infant mortality rate is 115 per 1,000 live births, the worst in the world. It also has one of the highest maternal mortality rates. Official Languages Afghanistans official languages are Dari and Pashto, both of which are Indo-European languages in the Iranian sub-family. Written Dari and Pashto both use a modified Arabic script.Other Afghan languages include Hazaragi, Uzbek, and Turkmen. Dari is the Afghan dialect of the Persian language. It is quite similar to Iranian Dari, with slight differences in pronunciation and accent. The two are mutually intelligible. Around 33 percent of Afghanis speak Dari as their first language. About 40 percent of the people of Afghanistan speak Pashto, the language of the Pashtun tribe. It is also spoken in the Pashtun areas of western Pakistan. Religion The overwhelming majority of Afghanistans people are Muslim, around 99 percent. About 80 percent are Sunni, and 19 percent Shia. The final one percent includes about 20,000 Bahais, 3,000-5,000 Christians. Only one Bukharan Jewish man, Zablon Simintov, remained by 2005. All of the other members of the Jewish community fled when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979. Until the mid-1980s, Afghanistan also had a population of 30,000 to 150,000 Hindus and Sikhs. During the Taliban regime, the Hindu minority was forced to wear yellow badges when they went out in public, and Hindu women had to wear the Islamic-style hijab. Today, only a few Hindus remain. Geography Afghanistan is a land-locked country bordering on Iran to the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan to the north, a tiny border with China at the northeast, and Pakistan to the east and south. Its total area is 647,500 square kilometers (almost 250,000 square miles). Most of Afghanistan is in the Hindu Kush Mountains, with some lower-lying desert areas. The highest point is Nowshak, at 7,486 meters (24,560 feet). The lowest is the Amu Darya River Basin, at 258 meters (846 feet). An arid and mountainous country, Afghanistan has little cropland; a scant 12 percent is arable, and only 0.2 percent is under permanent crop-cover. Climate The climate of Afghanistan is very dry and seasonal, with temperatures varying by altitude. Kabuls average January temperature is 0 degrees Celsius (32 Fahrenheit), while noon temperatures in July often reach 38 Celsius (100 Fahrenheit). Jalalabad can hit 46 Celsius (115 Fahrenheit) in the summer. Most of the precipitation that falls in Afghanistan comes in the form of winter snow. The nation-wide annual average is only 25-30 centimeters (10 to 12 inches), but snow drifts in the mountain valleys can reach depths of over 2 meters. The desert experiences sandstorms carried on winds moving at up to 177 kph (110 mph). Economy Afghanistan is among the poorest countries on Earth. The per capita GDP is $1,900 US, and about 36 percent of the population lives under the poverty line. The economy of Afghanistan receives large infusions of foreign aid, totaling billions of U.S. dollars annually. It has been undergoing a recovery, in part by the return of over five million expatriates and new construction projects. The countrys most valuable export is opium; eradication efforts have had mixed success. Other export goods include wheat, cotton, wool, handwoven rugs, and precious stones. Afghanistan imports much of its food and energy. Agriculture employs 80 percent of the labor force, industry, and services 10 percent each. The unemployment rate is 35 percent. The currency is the afghani. As of 2016, $1 US 69 afghani. History of Afghanistan Afghanistan was settled at least 50,000 years ago. Early cities such as Mundigak and Balkh sprang up around 5,000 years ago; they likely were affiliated with the Aryan culture of India. Around 700 B.C., the Median Empire expanded its rule to Afghanistan. The Medes were an Iranian people, rivals of the Persians. By 550 B.C., the Persians had displaced the Medians, establishing the Achaemenid Dynasty. Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded Afghanistan in 328 B.C., founding a Hellenistic empire with its capital at Bactria (Balkh). The Greeks were displaced around 150 B.C. by the Kushans and later the Parthians, nomadic Iranians. The Parthians ruled until about 300 A.D. when the Sassanians took control. Most Afghans were Hindu, Buddhist or Zoroastrian at that time, but an Arab invasion in 642 A.D. introduced Islam. The Arabs defeated the Sassanians and ruled until 870, at which time they were driven out again by the Persians. In 1220, Mongol warriors under Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan, and descendants of the Mongols would rule much of the region until 1747. In 1747, the Durrani Dynasty was founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, an ethnic Pashtun. This marked the origin of modern Afghanistan. The nineteenth century witnessed increasing Russian and British competition for influence in Central Asia, in The Great Game. Britain fought two wars with the Afghans, in 1839-1842 and 1878-1880. The British were routed in the first Anglo-Afghan War but took control of Afghanistans foreign relations after the second. Afghanistan was neutral in World War I, but Crown Prince Habibullah was assassinated for purported pro-British ideas in 1919. Later that year, Afghanistan attacked India, prompting the British to relinquish control over Afghan foreign affairs. Habibullahs younger brother Amanullah reigned from 1919 until his abdication in 1929. His cousin, Nadir Khan, became king but lasted only four years before he was assassinated. Nadir Khans son, Mohammad Zahir Shah, then took the throne, ruling from 1933 to 1973. He was ousted in a coup by his cousin Sardar Daoud, who declared the country a republic. Daoud was ousted in turn in 1978 by the Soviet-backed PDPA, which instituted Marxist rule. The Soviets took advantage of the political instability to invade in 1979; they would remain for ten years. Warlords ruled from 1989 until the extremist Taliban took power in 1996. The Taliban regime was ousted by U.S.-led forces in 2001 for its support of Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda. A new Afghan government was formed, supported by the International Security Force of the United Nations Security Council. The new government continued to receive help from  US-led NATO troops to battle Taliban insurgencies and shadow governments. The US war in Afghanistan was officially ended December 28, 2014.

Strategies for Motivating English Foreign Language Learners

Strategies for Motivating English Foreign Language Learners Motivational models for English Foreign Language (EFL) improve student motivation. Research has shown that motivation provides the basic impulsion to begin foreign language learning and subsequently the stimulus to keep up the often mind-numbing learning processes. Sound hypothetical consideration supports contemporary motivational strategies. However, no empirical evidence backs up the strategies causing the need for further research.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Strategies for Motivating English Foreign Language Learners specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research has revealed the significance of the learning environment in shaping the motivational aspects of learners. The systematic motivation strategy by Dornyei provides a parsimonious system of four dimensions. The first dimension is creating basic motivational conditions. This involves establishing a positive teacher-student relationship, supportive classroom condition, and creating a cohesive learn group. The next dimension is generating initial motivation. The strategy provides that teachers have a role to use appropriate strategies to enhance the learners’ anticipation for success and adopt a positive mindset regarding the language. The other technique is maintaining and protecting motivation through simulations and engaging in enjoyable tasks. This technique aims at promoting learner autonomy and positive culture. The teacher should also encourage students to undertake positive retrospective self-evaluation. The Macro-strategy is effective for teaching English Foreign Learners because it has the four dimensions. It gives priority to appropriate teacher behavior. Both the Taiwan and Hungarian survey provide that presenting a personal role model is an extremely influential device for motivating students. Teachers need to understand their responsibility as leaders in all learner teams. The research confirms the signifi cance of the teachers’ projection of enthusiasm in the subject matter to have a strong influence on the motivational disposition of the learners. Another provision of the macro-strategy is the essentiality of recognizing the efforts of learners and celebrating any of their success. The strategy provides that successful EFL teachers recognize the efforts of their students. This concept concurs with the Confucian ideology that recognition of efforts is an effective motivational tool. Educational psychology researchers have accepted macro-strategy because it provides mechanisms for promoting self-confidence of learners. The manner in which learners perceive their ability determines the efforts they will be willing to devote to accomplish a task. Notably, self-confidence leads to self-efficacy.Advertising Looking for critical writing on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another outstanding requirement of the macro-strategy is that teachers must create a pleasant and relaxed learning environment. Learning a second language is certainly one of the most difficult experiences students come across during their erudition. A tense classroom is a powerful negative element that hinders students from achieving their objectives. The strategy reinforces it is the responsibility of the teacher to create a safe learning environment, where participants shy away from social comparison but promote risk-taking. Next, the strategy advocates for presenting tasks properly. The mode of presentation of information apparently bears a strong impact on how the students learn. It is imperative that teachers put in mind why learners should do particular exercises and watchfully put across what the lesson intends the students to learn. Instructional clarify is, therefore, an indispensable motivational medium. The strategy also requires teachers to increase the goal-orientation of learners. English Foreign Learn ers researchers have adopted a more education-specific notion of objectives, illustrating their influential ability on student motivation in classroom settings. The macro-strategy encourages teachers to promote the creation of personal objectives. It suggests that a lack of recognition of the scope of goal setting affects negatively the performance of learners. Besides, the strategy provides that teachers should make the learning tasks stimulating. It recognizes that students are always eager to invest substantial resources in activities that arouse their curiosity. Teachers who do not regard interesting learning tasks imperative motivational aspects risk underperforming. Another provision of the strategy that teachers should use to improve their performance is familiarizing learners with the L2 culture and related values. There is pragmatic evidence that the disposition of English First Learners towards the target culture has significant impact on their achievement. Raising this gr oup of learner’s cross-cultural awareness enables them to appreciate the need to excel in the language, irrespective of any prevailing de-motivating circumstances. Additionally, promoting group cohesiveness and setting group rules also enhances English learning. This provision confirms earlier findings that group behavior determines the development of beliefs and actions of its members. However, experts, including Dornyei and Murphey, have presented a contradicting opinion regarding this provision. They have argued that researchers have not accorded the group-building issues due significance. The provision needs not to gain recognition a major motivation enhancing technique, as research is underway.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Strategies for Motivating English Foreign Language Learners specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The macro-strategy advocates for learner autonomy. It has heightened that an autonomy-supporting environment influences an increase in intrinsic motivation. The language teachers’ communicative style determines the autonomy of learners. When learners govern their own learning process, they become innovative. Conclusively, most motivational models are transferable across various cultural settings. Promoting learners’ confidence, creating an interesting learning environment, displaying motivational teacher behavior, and presenting tasks properly are components of this strategy that are acceptable universally. Outstanding motivational techniques provide many common outcomes. However, some cultural settings portray promoting learner autonomy, which is an effective motivational technique, as extraneous.

Strategic Management (DAVIS Case study) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic Management (DAVIS Case study) - Essay Example On the other hand Berendsen is involved in laundry, textile rental and maintenance etc in almost twelve countries in the continent (Davis-a, n.d.). This paper conducts a comprehensive SWOT analysis of the group. The paper also includes porter’s five forces analysis and BCG matrix in the context of Davis group. SWOT analysis is one of the major tools which is used to identify and analyze an organization’s internal strengths, weaknesses and external opportunities and threats which are likely to come up in near future or already has came up. It is useful strategic planning tool for the purpose of strategic decision making at different level in an organization. SWOT analysis tool was actually founded in 1960 by Robert Stewart, Albert Humphrey and their coworkers at the Stanford Research Institute. Strength: Strengths of Davis group is actually the strengths of two of its strategic business units namely Sunlight and Berendsen. Both Berendsen and Sunlight are the market leaders in their respective operating region and this is the major strength of the Davis group. Both Sunlight and Berendsen cover almost entire Europe. As a result market coverage of Davis group is huge. Further more both the units have strong network as there are large number of processing sites. Employee strength is also a major strength of Davis group. In Sunlight there are almost 9000 employees and in Berendsen there are 7000 employees (Sunlight, n.d.).The group needs to utilize this employee strength to achieve higher economies of scale. Weaknesses: Since both Sunlight and Berendsen are two companies working under the Davis group, it would be difficult to make Berendsen operate in UK and Ireland. Similarly the group would face problem to expand Sunlight in regions outside UK and Ireland. Since both the companies are involved in various textile maintenance service they might come to compete among themselves. This is a major weakness for

Can Nation States response to dealing with illegal drug trade ever be Essay

Can Nation States response to dealing with illegal drug trade ever be effective - Essay Example The governments are spending heavily on the war on drugs and terror, yet little can be determined a success. According to the NCA, the UK hosts a highly attractive illegal drug market, which the government’s organized crime strategy states that it costs the nation an estimated  £10.7 billion annually (n.d.). The effects of the drugs moving around the streets of the world’s nations without well-known linked sources remain a devastating issue for the societies, where most families involved with the crimes of trafficking or use of the substances flourish at the expense of others or waste their health in addictions. UK’s demand for illicit drugs, especially Class A consisting of heroin, cocaine, crack cocaine, and ecstasy have a large market share; Matrix Knowledge Group (2007, p.11) earlier on revealed estimates as â€Å"300 importers, 3000 wholesalers and 70000 street dealers†. Countries like USA, Jamaica and UK are among well-established origins and routes linking the Caribbean, Europe, Asia, North and South America, where high demands for illegal drugs are found. The UK has adopted numerous policies and has been working in coordination with other foreign governments. The fact is that drug smuggling and associated crimes is quite a complicated issue that cannot be solved by one nation state. Rather, it requires collective intervention and policies by governments, NGOS and good will individuals to offer an effective solution in reducing drug smuggling and production. Edwards and Gills argue that through international collaboration, these bodies can â€Å"pursue policies that re duce opportunities for successful organized crimes† and break existing criminal conspiracies (2003, p. 15). Drug smuggling into the UK has in the past been perceived to occur through different methods. Criminals have proved capable of using various

Shifting Paradigms In The Non Aligned Movement Politics Essay

Shifting Paradigms In The Non Aligned Movement Politics Essay The concept of Non Aligned Movement or NAM is not a doctrine or a dogma. It is a process. It is a way of looking at issues in a particular way. It is against hegemony, against arm-twisting by the rich and the powerful. Non-alignment  [1]  does not mean isolation or neutrality. It is an independent movement stressing that nations should follow their own policies without joining any of the power blocs (in the period when they had existed) and falling under their influence. A non-aligned nation judges each issue on its merits. In other words, non-alignment upholds the rights of all states to freedom and choice of action in the international field. One of the fundamental aspects of non-alignment is its antipathy to military alliances and opposition to any form of imperialism. The post Second World War period witnessed an era of awakening and rise of political and nationalist aspirations of subjugated people over the world. The centuries old phenomenon of colonialism started crumbling and finally gave way. Many new independent states came into existence in Asia and Africa after having thrown off the yoke of foreign domination. It was also a time when the cold war between the Soviet and the US blocs was getting intensified. The super powers tried to win over these newly independent countries to their respective blocs. But some of them abhorred the idea of submission to any of the super powers or for political inclination towards any of them. They wanted to pursue an independent foreign policy of their own rather than toeing the line of any power bloc. It was this strategy of not joining either of the two power blocs and following an independent foreign policy that came to be known as Non-alignment. The newly independent countries mostly in Asia and Africa had almost identical problems of economy, government, development, etc. and therefore they had many views in common on world affairs. These African and Asian countries thus sought to tackle their problems at a conference held at Bandung in Indonesia in 1955. Thirty Asian and African nations attended it. India, China and Indonesia played a leading role at this conference. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, the then prime minister of India, the then Chinese Prime Minister Chou-En-Lat and the then President Sukarno of Indonesia expressed complete identity of views. The impact of this conference was felt in the United Nations also. This was also the beginning of the Non-Aligned Movement. These Afro-Asian countries declared themselves neutralists. The epithet non-aligned was adopted at a subsequent conference held at Belgrade in 1961. SCOPE OF RESEARCH During the course of preparing the final submission, the student researcher has essentially tried in analyse the following primary research questions, namely: The extent to which the Non Aligned Movement has affected the world politics? Indias role concerning the Non Aligned Movement considering that it is one of the founding members and has recently emerged as a global economic superpower? The extent to which the current debate on the contemporaneous significance of Non Aligned Movement relevant? Measures can be taken to ensure that Non Aligned Movement emerges as a stronger force in current world politics? LIMITATION OF RESEARCH While trying to provide concrete answer to the research questions formulated above, the student researcher has intended to prepare this final research submission which is both explanatory and exploratory in scope. Also, the student researcher has intended to critically analyze the research question framed for the purpose of final research submission. In relation to the above, the student researcher has tried to present an overview of the Non Aligned Movement, historical evolution, its major contribution to global politics, pros and cons associated with the same, etc. through this final research submission. Also, the student researcher has tried to essentially compare Indias initiatives with that of the other countries of the world and examine the various measures adopted by them in strengthening the Non Aligned Movement. LIMITATION OF RESEARCH The student researcher submits that not much literature has been available on the same in the NUJS university library and other prominent libraries in Kolkata. Hence, the student researcher has relied on the electronic resources for completion of his final research submission. Also, this submission is, in no way, to be considered exhaustive and there shall be plenty of scope for further research. Having said this, the student researcher has tried, within his limited capabilities, to critically analyze the research questions framed for the purpose and present a value neutral submission. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH Since the present submission offered no scope for empirical research, the research methodology adopted by the student researcher was entirely doctrinal. The student researcher has analysed the research questions by making a value neutral study of the same. In doing the same, the student researcher has not let his own opinion influence the research questions or the research as a whole, to the maximum extent possible. NON ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT ITS ORIGINS, IDEOLOGY AND A LITTLE MORE Those who were not with us were against us. Stalin A country must lean to be on one side or the other and a third path does not exist. Chinese Communist Supremo Mao The term non-alignment has a specific meaning. Many Western scholars mean by non-alignment, neutrality or neutralism only; but that might not be a correct interpretation. Schwarzenberger  [2]  has suggested some related terms- isolationism, non-commitment, neutrality, neutralization, unilateralism and non involvement. Isolationism stands for policies of aloofness varying from the known isolation of the US before the First World War to postures of inoffensiveness in international affairs. Non commitment refers to politics of detachment for other powers in a triangular or multicorner relationship. Neutrality describes the political and legal status of a country at war, with respect to belligerents. Neutralization means a permanent neutral status of a particular state which it cannot give up under any circumstances, eg. Switzerland is a neutralized state. Unilateralism is identified with policies of calculated risks such as the destruction of own nuclear weapons at ones own instance . Non involvement means keeping away from the ideological struggle between the different super powers, though permitting a certain degree of flexibility when absolutely unavoidable. Non-alignment has a broader meaning than all the above mentioned terms and thus has a distinct character. It means a nation pursuing such a policy need not be neutral under all circumstances. Unlike neutrality, non alignment aims at keeping away but it keeps away not from a particular conflict or issue but from a persisting international tension like cold war. Since military alliances were an important aspect of cold war, non alignment naturally insisted on shunning from these alliances. It is, therefore, a foreign policy perspective that advocates freedom from commitment to any power bloc; it stresses on the independence of choice and action in external affairs. The policy of not aligning with any bloc, but at the same time being friendly to everyone, so that it might be feasible to have a moderating impact on international relations, came to be popularly known as non-alignment. It would enable a nation to judge each issue on merit and decide upon its course independently without be ing influenced by any commitment or bias. Non-alignment is neither a passive nor a negative policy. In so far as the negative appearance of the term non-alignment is concerned, it should be understood in the foreground of the ways of contemplating of Indian people who have expressed many positive and constructive ideas through negative expressions, such as Ahimsa and Apramad. As a positive concept it has several dimensions. It is natural that non-alignment should oppose certain values and at the same time promote some others which are in harmony with its basic orientation. The chief goals of the non-aligned movement in the fifties and the sixties were decolonization and the preservation of international peace. Of late, it has been contributing positively for attaining of a new international economic order and a new information order based on equity, justice, freedom and eradication of exploitation and dominance. It is positive since it strives for certain goals and values. As an activist and dynamic policy, it takes specific sides on the merits of each case. This implies issue bound tilts in non alignment are considered legitimate and the concept, therefore, does not imply equidistance from any of the existing superpowers. But at the same time, it also rejects the idea of natural allies recently coined to justify certain alliances of the non aligned states with certain powers. It is thus an active policy as it envisages an active role for the non aligned countries in the world affairs. For the sake of a more efficient and global lobbying power, 29 independent African and Asian countries met in the Indonesian city of Bandung between 18 and 24 April, 1955 with the aim of elaborating upon the principles of peaceful co-existence and creating the Dasa Sila Bandung (Bandungs Ten Principles).  [3]  None of them wanted to join any of the blocs, therefore, they chose non-alignment, which later on, first in Cairo, June 1961, then, in Belgrade, September 1961, was extended and formalised in the form of NAM. To quote Calvocoressi: The principal achievements of the Bandung Conference were that they had met and got to know one another (most of them were new to international politics); that they had laid the foundations for joint action at the United Nation and, through solidarity, increased their security, their status and their diplomatic weight in the world that they had attracted new men like Nasser to the group and made it bigger; that they were making the giant powers t ake them seriously and treat their policies as respectable.  [4]   Zambian President Kenneth Kaunda elaborated on the goodness of this concept in 1964 in these words: It is a determination to preserve independence, sovereignty, to respect such independence and sovereignty in such states and to decline to take sides in the major ideological struggles which rend the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. We will not hitch our carriage to any nations engine and be drawn along their railway line.  [5]  The criteria of non alignment determined as early as June 1961 at Cairo were: A country should follow an independent policy based on peaceful coexistence and non alignment, or should be showing a trend in favour of such a policy. It should consistently have supported movements for national independence. It should not be a member of multilateral military alliances concluded in the context of great power conflicts. If it has conceded military bases, these concessions should not have been made in the context of great power conflicts. If it is a member of a bilateral of regional deference agreement, this should not have been made in the context of great power conflicts. Another vital feature of Non-alignment is that it has been opposed not only to the two power blocs of power but also to the creation of a third bloc- the bloc of the Non aligned nations. The policy is not based on the desire to build up a third force or a third bloc. There is nothing like Indias Monroe Doctrine and there was nothing like Nehru Doctrine, behind Indian non alignment. The aim of non alignment is to build a third area of peace, an area which rejects war, cold war, alliances and supports peace in a a positive way and believes in cooperation. Non Aligned states have always opposed, and very successfully, the attempts to transform the group into a non aligned bloc. Non alignment is a movement but is not backed by any formal organisational structure or constitution. However, Indias effort to check institutionalization proved futile as in the Algiers Summit (1973)  [6]  it was decided to have a co ordination bureau within the host nation of each summit as the Chairman for the period between that summit to the next summit. The original strength of the Summit was 25 which was subsequently raised to 36. The Bureau meets at least once a year and deals with matters of common interest from time to time. It also takes decision regarding the next summit. It also seeks to strengthen cooperation and coordination among the member states inside the UN and help them in making united efforts for the realization of the goals of the non aligned movement. As per the Lusaka Conference (1970)  [7]  decision to hold non aligned summits at the interval of every three years, the same are held regularly since then. The Foreign Ministers of member states usually meet sometime before each summit mainly to prepare the agenda for the summit. These developments indi cate the growing institutionalization of non alignment is a reality and does not appear to be reversible. Some degree of permanence in structure and regularity in behaviour pattern have been injected into it. NON ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT AND THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE In Volume 7 of Encyclopedia Britannica (Micropaedia Section) on page 380, there is an entry which is most revealing of the mind set of the West. The word Non-Alignment is no doubt mentioned. However, the reader is directed to see neutralism. And that is that.  [8]   India has been one of the founding members and one of the most voracious proponents of the theory of non- alignment. In fact, it is sometimes attributed solely to the initiatives of our first Prime Minister Mr. Jawahar Lal Nehru. Nehru was not only the architect of Indias non-aligned foreign policy but also played a major role in espousing the cause of the third-world countries. In the prevailing turbulent state of global affairs, charting a non-aligned foreign policy posed a big challenge and it was only due to the wisdom and skill of Nehru that he succeeded in doing so. The principles guiding the foreign policy of Indias interim government that was formed just prior to gaining independence was enunciated by Nehru on September 7, 1946. In a radio address, Nehru, who then headed the interim government, stated that India would not join groups of states that were aligned against each other but would strive to establish friendly relations with all countries. Nehru had already conceived of a closer association of the Asian countries for evolving a common foreign policy. During his visit to South-East Asian countries in March 1946, Nehru not only secured the support for his idea but also got the needed consent from leaders of Burma, Indonesia and so on for holding a conference for that purpose. At the 14th NAM Conference held in Havana in September 2006, the purposes and principles of NAM was reiterated in the Declaration on the Purposes and Principles and the Role of the Non-Aligned Movement in the Present International Juncture, which was adopted on September 16, 2006.  [9]   The Heads of State and Government of the member-nations of NAM also reaffirmed their political will to strengthen the Non-Aligned Movement. The Havana Summit  [10]  also declared that one of the major Purposes of NAM in the present international situation was: To continue pursuing universal and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament, as well as a general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control and in this context, to work towards the objective of arriving at an agreement on a phased program for the complete elimination of nuclear weapons within a specified framework of time to eliminate nuclear weapons, to prohibit their development, production, acquisition, testing, stockpiling, transfer, use or threat of use and to provide for their destruction. The Havana Summits reiteration that: it is imperative that the Movement continues to be in the front-line in the struggle to change and transform the present unjust international order, certainly did not go down well with the US administration, which perceives the revival and reactivation of NAM as an inherent threat to its interests. Addressing the 32nd Annual US-India Business Council meeting which was found to be an appropriate occasion to publicly convey to India that it should jettison NAM in Washington D C, on June 27, 2007, the US Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice, posed a seemingly innocent question: What is the meaning of non-alignment? Immediately after posing the question, the Secretary of State herself went on to declare: It has lost its meaning  [11]   Rice had prefaced her question with the following remarks: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in order to create a partnership for our future and to fully realise it, we are going to have to move past old ways of thinking and old ways of actingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. And I know that there are some who still talk about non-alignment in foreign policy. But maybe that made sense during the Cold War when the world really was divided into rival camps. The fact is, neither Rices dismissal of the relevance of Non-Alignment nor the memory lapse of many of those at the helm of affairs in the Indian government at present, can make the concept of Non-Alignment irrelevant. On the contrary, it is high time that the US administration moved past old ways of thinking and old ways of acting; the sooner the US abandoned militarism and eschewed belligerency, the better it would be for all humanity! However, the fact remains it is the signals the Indian government has been transmitting over the last few years by acting contrary to the aims and objectives of NAM that have emboldened the US administration to give a call to India to abandon NAM. In a damage control exercise, the government of India was forced to quickly reiterate its commitment to NAM.  [12]   However, the said Press Briefing by the spokesperson of the Ministry of External Affairs in response to Rices statement was so brief that it provides further proof that the government of India did not intend to pay literally nothing more than mere lip service to the cause of NAM. It would be a complete betrayal of the cause of NAM if the government of India, as one of the founding members, fails to take on the mantle of responsibility and play a leadership role in propagating the cause of NAM by acting in accordance with its principles and proceeding to fulfill its purposes. The government of Indias present disposition towards NAM does not appear to be too favourably placed. Contrary to the explicit declaration of Nehru in 1947 that We do not intend to be the play things of others, there are apparently quite a few at the helm of affairs in India today, who are not averse to India playing second fiddle to the United States. Some groundwork was undertaken for realizing Mahatma Gandhis vision of a One World in the form of the Action Plan for a Nuclear Weapon Free and Non-violent World, which Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had placed before the UN General Assembly in 1988. However, after Rajiv Gandhis assassination in 1991, the government of India chose to tread in a different direction. Thus, Mahatma Gandhis counsel in 1947, that It is up to you to deliver the whole world, not merely Asia but deliver the whole world from that wickedness, from that sin [of war and destruction], remains unheeded. Only a vigilant and well-informed public and a strong and active m ass movement can force the government of India to pay heed to the eloquent advise of Gandhi and Nehru and compel it to uphold the tenets of NAM and act accordingly. HAS THE MOVEMENT LOST ITS RELEVANCE? A DISCUSSION IN THE LIGHT OF THE FORMAL END OF THE COLD WAR AND COLONISM The 58-Year old NAM has remained an object of immense applause as well as ruthless criticism throughout its existence. The US dubbed it as immoral and non sense. The Western Scholars despised the NAM ever since the latter was reckoned as an important factor in international politics. Notwithstanding this criticism, NAM remained a potent and powerful force in the cold war era. It took bold stands on issues affecting the newly independent and developing countries and was decidedly, a force that neither of the two super powers could afford to ignore. The NAM as a movement of the small, newly-independent and developing countries has been determined to carve out an independent path of development and not to remain an appendage of any colonizing power or superpower. This objective helped NAM in making a significant headway throughout the cold war era. The crusade against imperialism and racism met with greater success with large number of colonies the list of the UN and NAM as sovereign and Independent nation states. The economic concerns were related to the North- South great economic divide, dubious role of the international financial institutions, poverty and above all the vitality for a strong South-South cooperation. The search was for a New International Economic Order (NIEO) envisaging the restructuring of the global financial and monetary structure on just and equitable grounds. NAM played the role of cooling effect in ensuring global peace in the midst of cold war rivalry. NAM has been subjected to more ruthless criticism in the post-cold war period than in its long career. In the changed international scenario-the collapse of the former Soviet Union and the end of the cold war, the question has been posed as to whether NAM remains valid or not, it is often argued that since Non-alignment was born and brought up in the cold war context why should it not be renounced in the post-cold war world ? But there can be a counter question. The cold war is over. The War saw Pact has been dismantled, the Soviet Union has disappeared. Is the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) relevant? The non-aligned countries represent the will and voices of three-fourth humankind. In order to visualize its cherished goal the NAM needs to be especially innovative. The 21st century is for NAMs rebirth under new democratic philosophy. The 22 page, Declaration issued after the meeting of NAM Foreign Ministers, held at Accrais September 1991, entitled A World in Transition from Diminishing Confrontation Towards Increasing Cooperation emphasized that NAMs new focus must be on eradicating poverty, hunger, malnutrition and illiteracy and called on the international community to help. NAM supported the present efforts at strengthening the UN so as to render it, more democratic, effective and efficient. There was consensus among the Foreign Ministers for a bridging Agreement between NAM and the Group of 77 and proposed that a study should be made immediately of the modalities for reaching agreement between the two bodies for the introduction of a new system of periodic meetings of the joint coordination committee. The tectonic shifts in international relations over the last decade have challenged NAM to adopt itself to effectively tackle the new contemporary challenges. NAM should have a clear consensus on key issues of common concern to all of us. Multilateralism, reform of the UN system, global disarmament and combating global terrorism should be the political elements of this agenda. The collapse of Bipolarity and the rise of Unilateralism have given a unique cause to this developing body to strive for multilateralism in International relations. The issue of reforming the UN structure for a just world order has been going for long. The NAM should strive to restore the central role of the UN in the global economic issues, development and maintenance of peace and security in the world. Non-discriminatory, time-bound nuclear and general disarmament should be the objective towards which the movement should endeavour. The entire world today is facing a unique crisis in transnational terrorism, w hich is striking countrys political, economic and social edifice with immunity. The members within the NAM framework need to work out a realistic strategy to counter this danger in collaboration with the international community in a war footing. Perhaps the most important role for NAM today lies in framing a concrete economic agenda for a just and fair international economic order. The globalisation and liberalization trends worldwide have generated complex economic problems. The rich-poor divide has widened. The WTO rules and procedures have failed to provide adequate economic gains to the third world. WTO summits have failed to reach a consensus on many issues.  [13]  Its role in WTO negotiations to advance and protect the trading rights and opportunities of developing countries and in muscling up their negotiating position and skills would be the chief concern. It should strive to reform and reorient the globalization process through a strong developmental agenda. NAM has an effective role to play in this regard provided member countries try to see the benefits from a unified angle without any partisan considerations. South-South cooperation should become a major economic plank of the movement. Its role in the present century would be strengthened by more South-South cooperation, which would mean, by and large, collaboration between and among the NAM countries and defending their interests from fast expanding economic and technological power of the North. NAM should develop a progressive agenda on the fundamental values of democracy, Human rights and multiculturism. The preservation and consolidation of democracy throughout its membership is a major challenge. NAMs spectrum could be further enlarged with the increasing concern worldwide over environmental issues over green house gas emissions, health concerns especially AIDS, drug trafficking, rising instances of poverty and unemployment mostly within the NAM members and LDC countries, the rising digital divide between the rich and poor and fight against all shades of extreme, xenophobia, ethnic nationalism, regional wars. Non-alignment is a dynamic policy and retains its continuing relevance in world affairs by adapting itself to the changing international context and the needs of non-aligned community of nations. Peter Wiletts, another advocate of Non-alignment, holds the view that whether if will be a bipolar, multipolar or unipolar world, Non-alignment will have a place in it as an independent foreign policy. former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao commented: The pursuit of nonaligned foreign policy is ever more relevant (today) than ever before. Nonalignment basically consists of the espousal of the right to nations to independence and development, regardless of the bloc phenomenon. Whether there is one bloc or more at a given moment, the urge for a nonaligned country would continue to be to maintain its independence, to take decisions according to its light, not tagging along itself, in advance to others . . . . . He went on to add Chimera of hegemony must not be pursued. On the other hand, introspection also needs to be done on account of the recent lackadaisical approach of the heads of many countries who have failed to appear for the Summits of NAM. A more dynamic agenda needs to be adopted and adhered to because there still exist a number of basic issues in the developing countries which need to be addressed at the earliest. Though there has been a formal end to the factors had originally led to the origins of the movement, yet the second and the third world nations find themselves grappling with a number of other issues which cannot be said to be any less significant.

Greater Access to the Internet Has Enabled Buyers

Greater access to the internet has enabled buyers to search more easily for information about potential suppliers of goods and services. This has significantly affected many industries, such as insurance, banking, retailing and travel. To what extent do you think that increased internet usage inevitably reduces producers’ profits? Justify your answer with reference to organizations and/or industries that you know. Over the past decade, Shopping on the internet has skyrocketed with internet sales reaching almost ? 0 billion in 2012, which accounts to almost 10% of total sales in the UK. This is due to the increased possession of Internet devices such as: smartphones, laptops and computers. It has become much easier and simpler for consumers to buy products online using these devices. Increased internet security has also increased demand for online shopping due to customers being confident in undergoing an online transaction. Another advantage of selling items on the internet is that it gives you the opportunity to advertise your or another companies products.Over 80% of the British population uses the internet regularly which opens up a massive market for advertising and for companies to show their products to users of the internet. However, results in increased internet usage have resulted in the decreased need for physical advertising such as: books, magazines and newspapers which have begun to prove more ineffective in advertising products. For example, a double paged spread in a popular newspaper can exceed costs of ? 10,000 while costs of advertising on a high traffic website may only cost ? 200 a month.Jessops has recently entered administration and is a perfect example as to how increased internet usage can reduce profits for some firms. Its target market was camera lovers, which prints out photos, sells cameras and a large number of accessories. Despite being an online retailer, Jessops failed to compete with the low prices of Amazon, Curryâ€℠¢s and other online competitors. The internet has an endless supply of products such as cameras at a very competitive price. Some products would not be sold in Jessops but would be sold online resulting in losses of potential revenue for Jessops.Another market which has slowly died is the demand for printing of photos, due to social media websites such as Twitter and Facebook people don’t need to share their photos in a physical format and are capable of simply sending the picture via these social websites. In this case of selling products it was a massive drawback for Jessops but turned out to be an advantage for competitors such as Amazon. The increased number of internet users leads to benefits for Amazon who thrive off increased internet usage due to consumers finding it a cheaper alternative to Jessops.The internet can also be a good source of primary market research which enables firms such as Amazon to analyze prices of different websites. This would give the opportuni ty for Amazon to perhaps reduce prices or introduce offers which would help them sell more products. I believe it is entirely up to the company, this kind of competition would perhaps not effect Amazon due to their size in the market and their reliability where customers instantly visit Amazon knowing they will be given a fair price and receive their purchased item quickly.However, it did affect Jessops who failed to respond to demand and lower prices resulting in there imminent administration. I don’t believe that the increased usage of the internet reduces profits as some firms can be incredibly profitable off of this. With the current state of the economy, people who are in need of high quality clothing have tended to move further away from worldwide brands such as: Gucci, D&G and Louis Vuitton and have moved closer to the retail shop Zara. Zara has blossomed over the past few years, both online and in the high street due to increased internet usage and there quick respons e to demand.It is primarily down to the type of business and the level of competitiveness they possess. A large number of fashion companies are not focused on their usage of the internet and rely on customers purchasing these products physically from their shop which can be a major drawback in their market as they can’t expand their popularity to the larger target market found online. From the examples supplied I do not believe the increased usage of the internet will reduce producers’ profits as it will be down to the nature of the product and other related reasons.Reaction to change online will affect the companies chances of success in the current economic climate however. The internet can provide an endless number of benefits for companies such as: easy shopping, safe transactions and more straightforward searches. The internet has proven to be more successful for companies such as Zara having a massive profit increase of 43% simply after the re-designing of their websiote making it simpler for the inline internet shopper. Although a company like Zara could earn an incredible amount from online sales this leads to high street stores failing due to the loss in numbers of customers.

L’oreal and the Globalization of American Beauty Essay

How did L’Oreal become the world’s largest beauty company? What was the role of acquisitions in the growth? The global strategy of Loreal started first from European countries like Austria, Italy, and the Holland providing hare care and hair color products. After the launch in the USA, they decided to expand their market share by mainly M&A of many similar but way smaller companies. With proper acquisition strategy over the years, they finally became the largest company in beauty industry. L’Oreal offers consumers worldwide â€Å"American† and â€Å"French† concepts of beauty. Are there any limits to the national beauty images it can globalize? There may be some limits for Lorear to go more ‘worldwide’ even if they have huge branches and offices over the world. I think it may be related with ‘racial issues’. The society for ‘minority’ is changing faster than ever before, but still, the ‘majority’ of American and European countries are white but Asian, African American, and Hispanic. Thus, if they really care about optimal ‘globalization’ in all ways, they should probably consider making their diversified strategy in other markets (minorities). What are the global opportunities for Kiehl’s? What are the limits, if any? Even though Kiehl’s were taken over by Loreal through M&A, their products are not easily found at many stores, unlike there are so many producsts of Lorean in any store. And this is mainly because their products line are simply expensive targeting luxury market, so I think if they really want to go ‘global’ they should find proper way to make their products easily available to the customers through mega-stores like walmart, or target.